GUATEMALA

THE PROBLEM

The marine area of Guatemala is approximately 120,229 km². It represents about 53% of the total extension of the country. It has two marine zones and its strategic geographical position gives the country a great opportunity for its economic development. There are undoubtedly advantages in having two of the main ports of regional importance, including Puerto Quetzal (Pacific) and Santo Tomás de Castilla (Caribbean). Among other advantages, it is also evident that the estimated economic valuation of the goods and services provided by the marine-coastal areas of Guatemala is between USD 344 million and USD 454 million of average income per year. But, on the other hand, it is one of the most vulnerable countries to the adverse effects of climate change.

During the last two decades, the negative effects of climate change have been registered in the country, mainly in coastal areas. Likewise, the territory has experienced great impacts derived from hydrometeorological events of great intensity. Such as Hurricane Mitch (1998) and several droughts (2001, 2005) as well as other events: harmful algal blooms and coral bleaching (2015, 2016, 2017) that have been evidenced for decades in the region of the Mesoamerican Reef System (SAM) of which Guatemala forms part in its Caribbean coastal marine zone.

These environmental changes associated with climate change are expected to affect the demography, geographic distribution and phenology of species, as well as productivity, nutrient cycling, structure and functioning of ecosystems. Effects on species demography will show up as changes in recruitment, growth, and survival. On the other hand, due to phenological changes, temporal variations in algal blooms and fish migrations can occur, which can cause imbalances between populations of prey and predators.

Since 1987, in both marine-coastal areas, red tide phenomena have been observed, as harmful algal blooms or HABs are commonly known, caused by excess nutrients, being very frequent from southern Mexico to Panama in coastal communities of the Peaceful. The collection, consumption and commercialization of marine organisms represent an important part of the country's food security. However, the consumption of marine organisms affected by harmful microalgae can cause poisoning complications that occur from the ingestion of bivalve molluscs contaminated with paralytic toxins caused by dinoflagellates. The species that has caused the most damage is Pyrodinium bahamense, which is a dinoflagellate widely distributed along the coasts of North, Central and South America.

In Guatemala, blooms of P. bahamense var. compressum have been recorded in August 1987, on the Pacific coast, where 193 intoxications of people due to shellfish consumption were reported, of which 22 cases were fatal. Having also been reported in 1989, 1990, 1995, 2001, 2005, 2007 and 2009 (Carrillo-Ovalle, 2009), where fortunately no human losses were reported. In December 2019, García-Pérez, et al., registered high values never before reported for Guatemala and Latin America of blooms ofP. bahamense, a species that can be a potential risk to public and environmental health, since its presence is related to the sea pollution.

Regarding ocean acidification, the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO₂) by the oceans will help regulate future climate change, the hydrolysis of carbon dioxide will cause changes in water chemistry. The increase in the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere generates an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions in the oceans, which in turn lowers the pH values, which can cause problems in the calcification of some organisms marine such as corals, molluscs, foraminifera and others.

The increase in surface temperature and the acidification of the oceans is impacting coral reefs, turning them into less diverse communities with weaker carbonate structures that are impossible to maintain in the long term, causing ecosystems to lose their functionality, which This in turn will reduce the ability of ecosystems to support reef-associated fisheries, tourism, coastal protection, and surrounding communities.

In Guatemala, ocean acidification is one of the symptoms caused by climate change, for which there is no prior information; although ecosystems of great importance, such as the Mesoamerican Reef System (SAM), may be at risk.

In recent years, the effects of climate change have been increasingly evident, such as the increase in temperature and the acidification of the water in Guatemala's seas. Likewise, anthropogenic activities, mainly the waste produced, negatively influence the survival, growth, behavior and reproduction of organisms, also alter their immune response and increase diseases.

Such is the case of microplastics no larger than 5 mm or 1/5 inch in size, which come from the degradation of bulky plastics made of polyethylene (plastic bags, bottles), polystyrene (food containers), nylon , polypropylene (fabrics) or polyvinyl chloride (plastic pipes), also as small plastic spheres, which are used for the manufacture of toys and soft pillows. And microspheres, which are added to personal care products such as toothpaste, to give it color, shine or as a filler. The sources of microplastics in the environment include the primary (original) plastic products and/or secondary products (derived from the degradation of the primary sources).

Until 2020, Guatemala had not reported information on contamination with microplastics, which shows the need to generate scientific information that allows us to understand how plastic is reaching different parts of the territory, and what the impacts may be on food webs and that allow defining management actions and policies for the reduction of plastic in ecosystems.

One of the first steps was to evaluate the intake of microplastics (MPS) in fish from the Monterrico Multiple Use Natural Reserve (RNUMM), and its relationship with eating habits and habitat. Although MPS are emerging contaminants reported in several aquatic species, to date this is the first record that addresses the presence of MPS in fish from protected areas in Guatemala. After analyzing the digestive tract of more than 500 fish, 644 MPS were found in 47% of the individuals of 15 species, the dominant forms of microplastics were fibers followed by fragments and sheets. The highest amounts of MPS were recorded in omnivorous species and in benthic and pelagic habitats. These results provide the first evidence of MPS intake in fish in the Pacific coast of Guatemala.

That same year, another study revealed contamination by microplastics on the El Quetzalito sandy beach on the Guatemalan Caribbean coast. Plastic debris was found to negatively impact the Caribbean coast and is released by stormwater and river transport from the Motagua River. With a high abundance of mainly polystyrene foam beads and polypropylene fragments, the sources of microplastics are the deterioration of large plastics. As these plastics are commonly used in industrial, commercial, fishing and domestic activities.